Introduction

This is one of three poems in praise of saints composed in the the twelfth century, see also TysilioCBM and CadfanLlF. The historical and political context of the poems is discussed by Nerys Ann Jones and Morfydd E. Owen (Jones and Owen 2003: 45–76) who argue that they were commissioned to be sung on specific occasions at churches associated with those saints. As well as hagiographical material about the saints, each of the poems contains an element of praise for the contemporary ecclesiastical community as well as the secular lord on whose land the churches were located, namely the Lord Rhys of Deheubarth in the case of Canu i Ddewi

⁠Gwynfardd Brycheiniog⁠ is likely to have been a poetic alias and R. Geraint Gruffydd suggested that his name was perhaps modelled on that of Gwynfardd Dyfed, an ancestor of Dafydd ap Gwilym (see Gruffydd 1979–80: 100). The adjective Gwyn- can mean ‘saintly’ or ‘blessed’, and it is quite possible that Gwynfardd developed into a term for a poet associated with a specific religious institution. Gwynfardd certainly identifies himself with St David’s followers in this poem. Was he connected to one of St David’s churches in Brycheiniog, such as the important old clas church of Llan-ddew, just over a mile north-east of Brecon (see n73(e); Coflein under St David’s Church, Llanddew; Davies 1873: 277–84)? It seems likely that Gerald of Wales resided in the bishop’s palace at Llan-ddew after his appointment as archdeacon of Brecon in 1175 (ibid. 282–4). It may be significant that the archdeaconry came under the bishopric of St Davids, and that Gerald of Wales was seen actively promoting the cult of St David and the rights of the bishopric during the early years of his tenure. If Gwynfardd was indeed associated with Llan-ddew (did he receive his education there?), we need not be surprised that he was so well informed about St David.

N.A. Jones and M.E. Owen suggested that the poem was composed after 1170, because the Lord Rhys is described in it as ‘lord of Anglesey’ (l. 153): ‘A claim for supremacy over Anglesey was, by the twelfth century, tantamount to claiming supremacy over the whole of Wales’, and therefore, ‘It is unlikely that any poet would venture to refer to Rhys as Mon wledic before the death of Owain Gwynedd in 1170’ (Jones and Owen 2003: 61). However, Rhys’s mother, Gwenllïan daughter of Gruffudd ap Cynan, was Owain Gwynedd’s sister (EWGT 104), and in describing Rhys as the lord of Anglesey, Gwynfardd may simply be referring to Rhys’s heritage on his mother’s side. It is further suggested in Jones and Owen 2003: 62, that the reference to a ‘bishop’ at David’s altars (l. 267), may point more specifically to the year or so between 1175 and 1176, when David Fitzgerald was bishop of St Davids and his nephew, Gerald of Wales, was archdeacon of Brycheiniog: Gerald was made archdeacon in 1175 and David Fitzgerald died in 1176. It may also be significant that the poem’s likely patron, the Lord Rhys, was related to Gerald through the latter’s mother, Angharad; Gwynfardd also composed a praise poem for the Lord Rhys, which is believed to date from the 1170s, and possibly c.1176 (see GLlF 422 and DWB Online under ⁠Gwynfardd Brycheiniog⁠).

Rhygyfarch’s Latin Life of St David, composed sometime before 1097, is often interpreted as ‘A major manifestation of propaganda for St David’s cult, perhaps in the face of Norman opposition to native practices’ (Jones and Owen 2003: 52) and as a prelude to the campaign which gained force in the twelfth century to acquire metropolitan status for St Davids as an archbishopric independent of Canterbury and directly answerable to the Pope (Davies 2007b: 296–7; Pryce 1996: 146). The Welsh princes, and the Lord Rhys ap Gruffudd of Deheubarth in particular, were supportive of the campaign. Although Menevia is named at the top of the list of St David’s churches in Gwynfardd’s poem (l. 85), its main focus, as noted above, is on David’s church in Llanddewibrefi and the saint’s sanctuary between the rivers Teifi and Tywi. Gwynfardd identifies with the clerics there and praises the welcome and the great respect they afforded him and his poetry. The references in the poem to the Lord Rhys and to a ‘bishop’ (see above), suggest that they also may have been present when the poem was declaimed and that the feast was of particular importance. The suggestion made in Jones and Owen 2003: 63 that the poet, through his many references in the poem to the synod of Llanddewibrefi, ‘was advocating a metropolitan status for St Davids’ is probably correct, but we can be sure also, that he was promoting the interests of Llanddewibrefi, as a centre for pilgrimage as well as an effective place of sanctuary. Also of possible significance is the emphasis on the fact that the poem was in Welsh (136–9), probably rather than in Latin.

It was the privilege of those who lived within his sanctuary in Brefi to enjoy rhydid heb ofud, heb ofyn amgen, / Heb ofal cynnen ‘freedom without grief, without need to ask for anything further, / without fear of any strife’ (ll. 15–16). Indeed, throughout the poem Gwynfardd makes frequent reference to St David’s nawdd (‘patronage, sanctuary’) for his people and the braint (‘privilege’) enjoyed by those living within his sanctuary. Both these terms have legal connotations, as explained in Jones and Owen 2003: 55, ‘Both braint and nawdd are native legal concepts developed in a church context from the field of secular law where braint means the right of enjoying full legal status or privilege. In the case of a church, it is a privilege generally associated with royal grant or protection’.

According to the Welsh Life, St David’s sanctuary extended between the rivers Tywi and Teifi (WLSD 11.24 o Dyfi [= Dywi, Tywi] hyt ar Deiui) and Gwynfardd gives us a detailed description of the extent of the sanctuary in the fifth caniad of this poem. He claims that ‘His sanctuary is unfailing for the one who seeks it’ (l. 140), its limits being: O Garawn … / Hyd ar Dywi … / O’r Llyndu … / Hyd at Dwrch, terfyn tir â charreg (‘from Caron … / as far as the river Tywi … / From Llyn Du … / as far as the river Twrch, a land boundary marked by a stone’, ll. 144–7). It is in Lake Teifi in Caron that the river Teifi begins its journey, forming the western limit of the sanctuary. Llyn Du, near Tregaron, is the source of the river Tywi, before flowing southwards to form the eastern limit of the sanctuary. Llyn Du may also represent the northern extremity of his sanctuary, being possibly a recognised boundary between St David’s lands in south Ceredigion and those of Padarn in the north (but see n94(e) for other possibilities regarding the location of Llyn Du). The fourth point of the compass is provided by the river Twrch, which rises in the mountainous land south-east of Llanddewibrefi before flowing southwards through Llan-y-crwys and joining the river Cothi south of Pumsaint. As well as the Twrch, Gwynfardd mentions a certain boundary stone (terfyn tir â charreg, 147). Heather James identifies this stone with Carreg Hirfaen Gwyddog, a monolith that stands about a mile west of the Twrch and which is described as ‘An erect monolith, 4.8m high by 1.1m by 0.8m, carrying a modern in[s]cription: serves as a boundary marker between Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire’ (see Coflein under Carreg Hirfaen; Hirvaen Gwyddog; also James 2007: 67). It was a renowned monolith in its day, and it is named in the Lichfield Gospels as the stone that denoted the western boundary of Trefwyddog, a region corresponding to the later land of Caeo (see n96(e)).

Another interesting aspect of this poem is the orderly list of St David’s churches presented in the fourth caniad, in particular in lines 85–107. At the head of the list come two of his most important churches, Mynyw and Brefi, namely Tyddewi/St Davids and Llanddewibrefi: Dewi mawr Mynyw, syw sywedydd, / A Dewi Brefi ger ei broydd ‘Great David of Mynyw, a wise teacher, / and David of Brefi that lies besides its lowlands’ (ll. 85–6). Next is named the church of Llangyfelach, the principal church of Gower (Gŵyr), where St David was commanded by an angel to go to Jerusalem, and later, when he had returned home, where he received an altar, gifted to him by the patriarch of Jerusalem (n56(e)). This church’s importance may be reflected in the fact that the poet dedicates a full couplet to describing it. From this point onwards, the churches are named in some kind of geographical order: Meidrum (l. 90) in the commote of Ystlwyf, then there is a cluster on the river Teifi – Bangor Teifi (l. 91), Henllan (l. 91) and Maenordeifi (l. 93) – followed by Abergwyli in Carmarthenshire (l. 94). Then we move north to the churches south of the river Aeron in Ceredigion, namely Henfynyw (l. 95) and Llannarth (l. 97). The location of the next two, Llanadnau (l. 97) and Llangadog (l. 98), is uncertain – possibly Llanarthne in Carmarthenshire and Llangadog, an important church on Sarn Hir, an ancient roadway connecting west Wales with Brycheiniog (see n66(e), n67(e)). The next four churches are near the town of Brecon – Llan-faes (l. 99), Llywel (l. 100), Garthbryngi (l. 101) and Trallwng Cynfyn (l. 102) – and indeed five if we are correct in identifying Llanddewi (l. 103) with the church of Llan-ddew, about a mile north of Brecon (see n73(e)). Next come two churches in Elfael, namely Glasgwm (l. 104) and Cregrina (l. 106), and then Ystradenni (l. 107) in Maelienydd. Finally we return to Llanddewibrefi (ll. 108–9) and the poet dedicates a number of lines to praising the church’s community and territory (ll. 108–115), referring specifically to the well-born inhabitants of the land (ll. 116–19). The detailed knowledge that Gwynfardd demonstrates of the churches, often referring to specific geographical characteristics – such as mountains or hills, meadows, green fields, fields full of clover, wooded land – strongly suggests that he was personally acquainted with their actual locations.

Structurally the poem is typical of the poetry of the Poets of the Princes. It does not set out to tell a story, moving logically or chronologically between one episode and the next. Rather, the poet provides us with an incremental description of various traditions regarding St David and of life at his church of Llanddewibrefi in the twelfth century, moving rather disjointedly from one topic to the next. (For a detailed account of the poem’s contents, see below.) But even if we cannot describe the poem as a metrical Life of St David, it contains all the ingredients expected in a saint’s Life: the tales about him, especially about his miracles; his relics; descriptions of his churches; the extent of his sanctuary and privilege; and his importance for his people on Judgement Day, when he will explain their virtues to the Great Judge, so that they have a better chance of avoiding the pains of hell.

Canu i Ddewi contains a wealth of important information about St David and was composed about a century and a half before an anonymous author-translator produced a Welsh-language Life of the saint, possibly in the first half of the fourteenth century or the second half of the previous century (WLSD liv–lv). It has been suggested that the poem was influenced by Rhygyfarch’s earlier work – partly because of some correspondences between them not found in the Welsh Life – however, it is perhaps more likely that both Rhygyfarch and Gwynfardd were drawing on the same traditions. There are themes and traditions in each that are not found in the other.

Of particular interest are references in the poem to themes and traditions that are echoed in later poetry, but which are absent from both the Latin and Welsh prose Lives. For example, Gwynfardd notes that the hill in Llanddewibrefi rose under the feet of St David in the presence of a crowd of 147,000 people. This exact same number was given later by Iolo Goch and Ieuan ap Rhydderch in their poems for St David (Dafydd Llwyd of Mathafarn gives 160,000), and it is possible that one, or both, poets had lifted the number from the copy of Gwynfardd’s poem in the Hendregadredd Manuscript at Glyn Aeron. The prose Lives do not give a number (n20(e)). Also there are three references in Gwynfardd’s poem to the hill itself as bryn gwyn, as if it were an established name. Is it a coincidence that Lewys Glyn Cothi refers also to the bryn gwyn, whilst the Welsh prose Life simply describes the hill as mynyd ‘mountain’ or brynn vchel ‘high hill’ (n19(e))? Again, it is only Ieuan ap Rhydderch and Gwynfardd Brycheiniog who refer to the widow’s son that St David resuscitated on his way to the synod of Brefi as Magna (n84(e)). Other themes in Gwynfardd’s poem also occur in later poetry, and not in the prose Lives, such as the reference to the wild stags (ll. 17–18) and to St David’s taming of the wild birds that were destroying Peulin’s corn (ll. 168–75, and see n110(e) where there are references to the same incident in the Lives of Illtud and Paul Aurelian). Some references seem to be unique to the poem, such as the girl with ‘cruel teeth’ who slapped St David, possibly whilst he was in Jerusalem (ll. 23–4); St David crossing the sea on a stone slab (n117(e)); the Frenchman without a nose or eyes (wynepglawr) who had travelled from France to seek the saint’s healing (ll. 158–61). Gwynfardd’s account of Boia’s jealousy and the handmaidens’ attempts to shame the saint and his disciples is also interesting, and seems to correspond more closely in some aspects to the version given in the Life of Teilo, rather than to the version given in the Welsh and Latin Lives of St David (e.g. n118(e), n130(e)).

For the historical Saint David and the prose Lives that have survived, see Dr Jenny Day’s comprehensive account in BDewi.

Date
Uncertain: probably after 1170 and possibly 1175/6.

Previous editions⁠
HG Cref poem XVIII; CTC 10–15, 260–7a; OBWV 33–6 (part); GLlF poem 26; Owen 1991–2.

Summary of the poem
Caniad I (1–30)
The poet opens with a traditional request to God to provide him with a muse so that he can sing an inspired song for St David (1–6). The phrase pan ddêl pylgaint (2) may suggest an ecclesiastical context, and this along with other similar references may suggest that the poem was sung at the church of Llanddewibrefi. There is a reference to David’s father, Sant (11), followed by praise of the sanctuary and protection afforded by David to those who resided in his land (11–18). Mention is made of David’s pilgrimage to Rome and Jerusalem, when he miraculously travelled overseas on a rock, and when he suffered a violent attack by a fierce girl (19–24). There is a short reference to trouble regarding a chieftain of Dumnonia (25–6) and the caniad ends with a description of the hill rising beneath David’s feet in the presence of a crowd of 140,000 people at Llanddewibrefi, thus increasing the privilege and fame of Brefi (27–30).

Caniad II (31–62)
The poet describes the privilege and freedom enjoyed by those living in David’s lands, including Ireland, Deheubarth and the hundred of Pebidiog where St Davids (always referred to in the poem as Mynyw) is located (31–4). David is described leading the Welsh to God on Judgement Day, and taking his place near Patrick and his people from Ireland (35–40). This is followed by a series of lines beginning with the words ‘Whoever loves David …’ (A garo ⁠Dewi⁠⁠ …) which describe the virtues of David’s followers, those whom he will protect (41–50). There are references to two traditions involving David’s oxen: that they were yoked together to pull Cynog’s cart (51–2) (no further explanation is provided), and that they traversed two mountains to take a bell named Bangu to Glasgwm church in Elfael, before taking two further gifts to Brycheiniog (53–8). The caniad ends with the poet reaffirming that it will be upon God and David that ‘we’ will call when ‘we’ are afraid (‘we’ (ni) suggesting that the poet is identifying himself with David’s followers.)

Caniad III (63–80)
After asserting his confidence in the security of ‘their land’ (63–4), Gwynfardd describes the welcome he enjoyed at the church at Llanddewibrefi (73), and praises its priest, its mass and its evening services (65–72). The reference to the presence of ‘women, young maidens, those whom I could love’ (70) may suggest that the feasts were public. Gwynfardd is particularly proud of the ‘respect’ ([p]arch) shown towards him as a poet, which tallies with the assumption that he was a poet from Brycheiniog who had received an invitation or commission to come to Llanddewibrefi to sing this poem. The caniad ends with a declaration of the poet’s loyalty to God and to St David (75–6), his promise to make atonement for his sins (77–8), and the confirmation of his faith in St David, who will afford him personal protection (79–80).

Caniad IV (81–131):
Gwynfardd asks God and St David for their love and protection, emphasizing once more St David’s important status next to God (81–4). St David’s churches are listed (85–107) beginning with his two most important churches, St Davids (⁠Mynyw⁠) and Llanddewibrefi (⁠Brefi⁠), in that order (85–6), then praising Llangyfelach (87). He then names several churches following a geographical order before returning to praise Llanddewibrefi its land and its religious community (108–115), and the noble lineage of its inhabitants (116–19). He identifies once more with the community at Llanddewibrefi and affirms his confidence in St David’s patronage and protection of his people both on earth and on Judgement Day (120–3). He refers to how St David miraculously resurrected the boy Magna on his way to the synod of Llanddewibrefi (124–7), before ending the caniad with further praise of the charitable community at Brefi and their loyalty to their saint (128–31).

Caniad V (132–53)
The first four couplets describe the joyous reception given to Gwynfardd’s poetry in Llanddewibrefi, and the respect shown to him as a poet (132–9). The extent of David’s sanctuary is described, from the northern limits of Caron, the source of the river Teifi, and Llyn Du, the source of the river Tywi, down to the river Twrch and Carreg Hirfaen in the south. The final six couplets seem to praise the Lord Rhys ap Gruffudd, the de facto patron of the poem, referring rather enigmatically to an occasion when he avenged the theft of his cattle (148–53).

Caniad VI (154–95)
Gwynfardd confirms his intention to present his poem to the head of the church (probably at Llanddewibrefi) (154–7). He refers to the miracle of restoring sight to a Frenchman who had no eyes or nose (158–61) and the visit of the daughter of a king from the east to Brefi bringing salvation with her (162–5). A further miracle is the fact that anyone buried in David’s cemetery (?at St Davids) will avoid the torments of hell, and several lines are dedicated to describing St David answering Peulin’s request for help to save his corn from the wild birds that were ravaging it, by confining them in a barn (168–75). St David’s relics are mentioned: his wondrous altar (182), his bell (184) and his crozier (186), before referring once again to the miracle of the bryn gwyn (189), the rock that carried St David over the ocean (190) and the three clouds of smoke which marked the extent of his territory (193).

Caniad VII (196–211)
Here we have more general praise for St David and his authority over land and sea. The poet says that he has visited St Davids in the past, and for the second time in the poem, he refers to St David as ‘great David of Menevia’ (210, cf. 85).

Caniad VIII (212–45)
It is uncertain whether the poet is referring in this section to the sixth-century saint or to a contemporary leader through whom he acted. For example, who is ‘the rightful owner’ (217) who shared gifts such as expensive clothing and who answered everyone’s requests with miracles? Whoever he was, Gwynfardd hopes that his generosity will also extend to his poet! This leader’s protective nature is emphasized (218–27), followed by a more specific reference to St David building his church at ⁠Hoddnant⁠, namely St Davids (229), infuriating a local lord named Boia. There follows a description of Boia’s futile attempt to remove the saint by shaming him and his followers (232–7). Patrick is described departing bitterly for Ireland, after God informed him that the as yet unborn St David was destined to be lord of St Davids, and the caniad closes with a reference to another miracle performed by David before his birth, namely that Gildas (who is not named here) managed to preach as loud as ‘a trumpet’ only after Non, who was carrying the unborn David in her womb, had left the church (244–5).

Caniad IX (246–71)
There follows more specific praise for St David, referring rather enigmatically to how he was established in his land by means of the sign of a reed from heaven (246–7). Reference is made to elements in the landscape that are evidence of the saint’s miraculous powers – his well (256–7) and particular rocks which contained his footprint and those of his horse (258–9). The reference to [b]ryn gwyn (260) suggests that Llanddewibrefi is once again the focus of this caniad, and the joy and welcome the poet describes at feast times there is probably what he enjoyed himself (260–5). In the final lines he states that he has come to the south (Dehau, 270), and as St Davids, Llanddewibrefi and Brycheiniog are all in the south, he may be suggesting that he had returned from north Wales, possibly from Anglesey (271).

Caniad X (272–96)
In this final caniad Gwynfardd claims St David’s supremacy over other saints, describing how he summoned saints from diverse parts of Britain and from France and Brittany to his synod in Llanddewibrefi, where all accepted David as their ultimate leader (Dewi … / Yn bennaf 287–8). Finally, St David’s protective powers on Judgement Day are described, when, along with Mary and Michael, he will intercede on behalf of his people and lead them to the everlasting mercy of God (289–96).

Metre and cynghanedd
The poem is described in its title as Canu ‘song’, a term used in the title of several twelfth-century poems in the Hendregadredd Manuscript and the Red Book of Hergest. They all seem to be long poems containing several caniadau (i.e. stanzas on the the same end-rhyme), usually linked together by means of some device, such as repetition of a word, consonance, internal rhyme, &c.

There is some kind of cynghanedd in every line in his poem: either consonance, especially between two words in the middle of the line (cynghanedd braidd gyffwrdd); internal rhyme, sometimes forming cynghanedd lusg; or a combination of consonance and rhyme (usually forming a kind of cynghanedd sain).

There is a certain inconsistency in the number of syllables in the lines. Many can be contracted to obtain the expected number of syllables; however, others seem fundamentally too long. This general lack of consistency seems to suggest that syllable-counting was not a feature of Gwynfardd’s poems in general.

Three types of metre have been used in the awdl, in no particular order, namely couplets of cyhydedd nawban, cyhydedd hir and toddaid (see below). The cyhydedd nawban and the toddaid follow the pattern described by John Morris-Jones in CD 337–40; however, with the exception of lines 99–100, the cyhydedd hir is different to the pattern described ibid. 315, with consonance rather than rhyme linking the end of the first half of the first line with the beginning of the second. These latter lines were described in HG Cref 187 as lines of toddaid without an end-rhyme.

Caniad I (ll. 1–30): 30 lines on the end-rhyme -(i)aint; cyhydedd nawban (1–2, 5–6, 9–10, 13–14, 17–18, 21–30), cyhydedd hir (3–4, 15–16) and toddaid (11–12, 19–20). The end of this caniad and the beginning of the next are linked by the repetition of the word braint (braint … / Ei fraint).⁠

Caniad II (ll. 31–62): 32 lines on the end-rhyme -(i)awg; toddaid (31–2, 43–4, 49–50, 53–4), cyhydedd nawban (33–4, 37–42, 45–8, 51–2, 55–62), cyhydedd hir (35–6). The end of this caniad and the beginning of the next are linked by consonance ( bresen breswyl fodawg / Breiniawl fyth fyddaf).

Caniad III (ll. 63–80): 18 lines on the end-rhyme -wyf; toddaid (63–4, 77–8), cyhydedd nawban (65–6, 69–70, 73–6, 79–70), cyhydedd hir (67–8, 71–2). The end of this caniad and the beginning of the next are linked by the verbal forms archwyf / Archaf.

Caniad IV (ll. 81–131): 51 lines on the end-rhyme -ydd; toddaid (81–2, 95–6, 108–9, 116–17, 122–3), cyhydedd nawban (83–6, 89–90, 93–4, 97–8, 101–7, 110–15, 118–121, 124–131), cyhydedd hir (87–8, 91–2, 99–100). There does not seem to be a device linking the end of this caniad with the beginning of the next (unless we count the repetition of the word Brefi in the final line of this caniad and the third line of the next).

Caniad V (ll. 132–53): 22 lines on the end-rhyme -eg; toddaid (132–3, 136–7, 148–9), cyhydedd nawban (134–5. 138–9, 142–7, 150–3), cyhydedd hir (140–1). The end of this caniad and the beginning of the next are linked by the repetition of rh-.

Caniad VI (ll. 154–95): 42 lines on the end-rhyme -i; toddaid (154–5), cyhydedd nawban (156–95, but see n73(t) for the possibility that lines 184–5 should be interpreted as a toddaid). The end of this caniad and the beginning of the next are linked by the repetition of D-.

Caniad VII (ll. 196–211): 16 lines on the end-rhyme -ed; toddaid (196–7, 204–5), cyhydedd nawban (198–203, 206–11). The end of this caniad and the beginning of the next are linked by consonance, chred / chronnes.

Caniad VIII (ll. 212–45): 34 lines on the end-rhyme -au; toddaid (212–13), cyhydedd nawban (214–41, 244–5), cyhydedd hir (242–3). A partial rhyme possibly links the end of this caniad with the beginning of the next (eiriau / syrthai). As both caniad 8 and 9 have the same end-rhyme, it is possible that they should be viewed as one, see n95(t).

Caniad IX (ll. 246–71): 26 lines on the end-rhyme -au; toddaid (246–7, 252–3, 256–7, 260–1, 268–9), cyhydedd nawban (248–51, 254–5, 258–9, 262–5, 270–1), cyhydedd hir (266–7). The end of this caniad and the beginning of the next are linked by consonance (gwerendau / gŵr).

Caniad X (ll. 272–96): 25 lines on the end-rhyme -edd; cyhydedd nawban (272–296; l. 284 seems to be a solitary line, see n100(t)). The end of the poem does not link with its beginning as is usual, unless it is by the repetition of d- (Dycheferfyddwn … drugaredd / … Dofydd (dedwydd dewaint)).

Note on the translation⁠
The translation offered is fairly literal, however, at times precedence has been given to translating the overall sense of a sentence, rather than adhering to the individual words and their order in the text. A more literal Welsh paraphrase is offered in GLlF.